Refrigeration is the withdrawl of heat from a substance or space so that temperature lower than that of the natural surroundings is achieved.
Refrigeration may be produced by
- thermoelectric means
- vapor compression systems
- expansion of compressed gases
- throttling or unrestrained expansion of gases.
Vapor compression systems are employed in most refrigeration systems. Here, cooling is accomplished by evaporation of a liquid refrigerant under reduced pressure and temperature. The fluid enters the compressors at state 1 where the temperature is elevated by mechanical compression (state 2). The vapor condenses at this pressure, and the resultant heat is dissipated to the surrounding. The high pressure liquid (state 3) then passes through an expansion valve through which the fluid pressure is lowered. The low-pressure fluid enters the evaporator at state 4 where it evaporates by absorbing heat from the refrigerated space, and reenters the compressor. The whole cycle is repeated.
The simplest model for IC engines is the air-standard model, which assumes that:
- The system is closed.
- Air is the working fluid and is modeled as an ideal gas throughout the cycle.
- Compression and expansion processes are isentropic.
- A reversible heat transfer process characterizes the combustion of fuel and air.
- Heat rejection takes place reversibly and at constant volume.
Spark Ignition Engines (Otto Cycle)
The spark-ignition engines are the most common type used in cars. Larger engines operate using a four-stroke cycle, while smaller engines operate on a two-stroke cycle. In a simple four-stroke cycle, a combustible mixture of air and fuel is drawn into a cylinder during the intake stroke, and the temperature and pressure of the mixture is raised during the compression stroke. At near the maximum compression, a spark initiates combustion of the mixture, raising its temperature and forcing expansion. The expanding gases do work on the piston during the power stroke and then the burnt gases are purged during the exhaust stroke. Typically 3000 or more such cycles are repeated in a minute.
The Otto cycle is an air-standard model of the actual cycle. In addition to the air-standard assumptions listed above, the combustion process is modelled as a reversible constant volume heat addition process. The four steps of the air-standard Otto cycle are outlined below:
- (1-2) Isentropic compression (Compression Stroke)
- (2-3) Constant-volume, reversible heat addition (Ignition)
- (3-4) Isentropic expansion (Power Stroke)
- (4-1) Reversible, constant-volume heat rejection (Exhaust)
Typical pv and Ts diagrams for an Otto cycle are shown below where steps (1-2) and (3-4) are isentropic, and (2-3) and (4-1) are isochoric.
Applications of plain carbon steels
These are alloys of iron and carbon, chemically combined, with other elements such as manganese, silicon, sulphur, phosphorus, nickel and chromium. Properties are governed by the amount of carbon and the heat treatment used. Plain carbon steels are broadly classified as: low carbon (0.05-0.3%C), with high ductility and ease of forming; medium carbon (0.3-0.6%C), in which heat treatment can double the strength and hardness but retain good ductility; and high carbon (> 0.6%C), which has great hardness and high strength and is used for tools, dies, springs, etc.
Applications of plain carbon steels :
| % Carbon | Name | Applications |
| 0.05 | Dead mild | Sheet, strip, car bodies, tinplate, wire, rod, tubes |
| 0.08-0.15 | Mild | Sheet, strip, wire, rod, nails, screws, reinforcing bars |
| 0.15 | Mild | Case carburizing type |
| 0.10-0.30 | Mild | Steel plate, sections, structural steel |
| 0.25-0.40 | Medium carbon | Bright drawn bar |
| 0.30-0.45 | Medium carbon | High tensile tube, shafts |
| 0.40-0.50 | Medium carbon | Shafts, gears, forgings, castings, springs |
| 0.55-0.65 | High carbon | Forging dies, springs, railway rails |
| 0.65-0.75 | High carbon | Hammers, saws, cylinder liners |
| 0.75-0.85 | High carbon | Chisels, die blocks for forging |
| 0.85-0.95 | High carbon | Punches, shear blades, high tensile wire |
| 0.95-1.10 | High carbon | Knives, axes, screwing taps and dies, milling cutters |
Properties of carbon steels (BS 970) :
| Type | C (%) | Si (%) | Mn (%) | Tensile strength (Nmm-2) | Elongation (%) | Hardness, BHN* | Applications, etc. |
| 070 M20 | 0.2 | - | 0.7 | 400 | 21 | 150 | Easily machinable steels suitable for light stressing. Weldable |
| 070 M26 | 0.26 | - | 0.7 | 430 | 20 | 165 | Stronger than En2. Good machinability. Weldable |
| 080 M30 | 0.3 | - | 0.8 | 460 | 20 | 165 | Increased carbon improves mechanical properties, but slightly less machinable |
| 080 M36 | 0.36 | - | 0.8 | 490 | 18 | 180 | Tough steel used for forgings, nuts and bolts, |
| 080 M40 | 0.4 | - | 0.8 | 510 | 16 | 180 | Medium carbon steel, readily machinable |
| 080 M46 | 0.46 | - | 0.8 | 540 | 14 | 205 | Used for motor shafts, axles, brackets and couplings |
| 080 M50 | 0.5 | - | 0.8 | 570 | 14 | 205 | Used where strength is more important than toughness, e.g. machine tool parts |
| 216 M28 | 0.28 | 0.25 | 1.3 | 540 | 10 | 180 | Increased manganese content gives enhanced strength and toughness |
| 080 M15 | 0.15 | 0.25 | 0.8 | 460 | 16 | - | Case-hardening steel. Used where wear is important, e.g. gears and pawls |
| 060 A96^ | 0.99-1.0 | 0.1-0.7 | 0.5-0.7 | 1300 | - | 500 | High carbon spring steel |
*BHN =Brinell hardness number....^To BS 950.
Tempering temperature and clolour for carbon steels :
| Temperature ("C) | Colour | Applications |
| 220 | Pale yellow | Hacksaw blades |
| 230 | Light yellow | Planing and slotting tools, hammers |
| 240 | Straw yellow | Milling cutters, drills, reamers |
| 250 | Dark yellow | Taps, dies, shear blades, punches |
| 260 | Brown yellow | Wood drills, stone-cutting tools |
| 270 | Brown purple | Axe blades, press tools |
| 280 | Purple | Cold chisels, wood chisels, plane blades |
| 290 | Dark purple | Screw drivers |
| 300 | Dark blue | Wood saws, springs |
| 450-700 | Up to dark red | Great toughness at expense of hardness |
The Specific Heat Capacity is the amount of heat required to change a unit mass of a substance by one degree in temperature. The heat supplied to a unit mass can be expressed as
dQ = m c dt (1)
where
dQ = heat supplied (kJ, Btu)
m = mass (kg, lb)
c = Specific Heat Capacity (kJ/kgoC, Btu/lboF)
dt = temperature change (oC, oF)
Expressing Specific Heat Capacity using (1)
c = dQ / m dt (1b)
Converting between Common Units
* 1 Btu/lbmoF = 4186.8 J/kg K = 1 kcal/kgoC
Specific Heat Capacity Gases
There are two definitions of Specific Heat Capacity for vapors and gases:
cp = (δh/δT)p - Specific Heat Capacity at constant pressure (kJ/kgoC)
cv = ( δh/ δT)v - Specific Heat Capacity at constant volume (kJ/kgoC)
Gas Constant
The gas constant can be expressed as
R = cp - cv (2)
where
R = Gas Constant
Ratio of Specific Heat
The Ratio of Specific Heat Capacities is expressed
k = cp / cv (3)
The volumetric flow rate in a heating system can be expressed by the basic equation:
q = h / ( cp ρ dt ) (1)
where
q = volumetric flow rate
h = heat flow rate
cp = specific heat capacity
ρ = density
dt = temperature difference
The basic equation can be modified for the actual units - SI or imperial - and the liquids in use.
Volumetric Water Flow Rate in Imperial Units
For water with temperature 60oF flow rate can be expressed as:
q = h (7.48 gal/ft3) / ((1 Btu/lbm.oF) (62.34 lb/ft3) (60 min/h) dt) (2)
or
q = h / (500 dt) (2b)
where
q = water flow rate (gal/min)
h = heat flow rate (Btu/h)
dt = temperature difference (oF)
For more exact volumetric flow rates for hot water the properties of hot water should be used.
Water Mass Flow Rate in Imperial Units
Water mass flow can be expressed as:
m = h / ((1.2 Btu/lbm.oF) dt) (2c)
where
m = mass flow (lbm/h)
Volumetric Water Flow Rate in SI-Units
For a water heating system the volumetric flow can be expressed in SI-units as:
q = h / ((4.2 kg.oC) (1000 kg/m3) dt) (3)
where
q = water flow rate (m3/s)
h = heat flow rate (kW or kJ/s)
dt = temperature difference (oC)
For more exact volumetric flow rates for hot water the properties of hot water should be used.
Water Mass Flow Rate in SI-units
Mass flow of water can be expressed as:
m = h / ((4.2 kg.oC) dt) (3b)
where
m = mass flow rate (kg/s)
Example - Flow Rate in a Heating System
A water circulating heating systems delivers 230 kW with a temperature difference of 20oC.
The volumetric flow can be expressed as:
q = (230 kW) / ((4.2 kg.oC) (1000 kg/m3) (20oC))
= 2.7 10-3 m3/s
The mass flow can be expressed as:
m = (230 kW) / ((4.2 kJ/kg.oC) (20oC))
= 2.7 kg/s
There are four basic types of ground loop systems. Three of these—horizontal, vertical, and pond/lake—are closed-loop systems. The fourth type of system is the open-loop option. Which one of these is best depends on the climate, soil conditions, available land, and local installation costs at the site. All of these approaches can be used for residential and commercial building applications.
Closed-Loop Systems
Horizontal
This type of installation is generally most cost-effective for residential installations, particularly for new construction where sufficient land is available. It requires trenches at least four feet deep. The most common layouts either use two pipes, one buried at six feet, and the other at four feet, or two pipes placed side-by-side at five feet in the ground in a two-foot wide trench. The Slinky™ method of looping pipe allows more pipe in a shorter trench, which cuts down on installation costs and makes horizontal installation possible in areas it would not be with conventional horizontal applications.
VerticalLarge commercial buildings and schools often use vertical systems because the land area required for horizontal loops would be prohibitive. Vertical loops are also used where the soil is too shallow for trenching, and they minimize the disturbance to existing landscaping. For a vertical system, holes (approximately four inches in diameter) are drilled about 20 feet apart and 100–400 feet deep. Into these holes go two pipes that are connected at the bottom with a U-bend to form a loop. The vertical loops are connected with horizontal pipe (i.e., manifold), placed in trenches, and connected to the heat pump in the building.
Pond/LakeIf the site has an adequate water body, this may be the lowest cost option. A supply line pipe is run underground from the building to the water and coiled into circles at least eight feet under the surface to prevent freezing. The coils should only be placed in a water source that meets minimum volume, depth, and quality criteria.
Open-Loop SystemThis type of system uses well or surface body water as the heat exchange fluid that circulates directly through the GHP system. Once it has circulated through the system, the water returns to the ground through the well, a recharge well, or surface discharge. This option is obviously practical only where there is an adequate supply of relatively clean water, and all local codes and regulations regarding groundwater discharge are met.
ASME/ANSI B16.1 - 1998 - Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
This Standard for Classes 25, 125, and 250 Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings covers:
- (a) pressure-temperature ratings,
- (b) sizes and method of designating openings of reducing fittings,
- (c) marking,
- (d) minimum requirements for materials,
- (e) dimensions and tolerances,
- (f) bolt, nut, and gasket dimensions and
- (g) tests.
This Standard for threaded malleable iron fittings Classes 150, and 300 provides requirements for the following:
- (a) pressure-temperature ratings
- (b) size and method of designating openings of reducing fittings
- (c) marking
- (d) materials
- (e) dimensions and tolerances
- (f) threading
- (g) coatings
This Standard for gray iron threaded fittings, Classes 125 and 250 covers:
- (a) pressure-temperature ratings
- (b) size and method of designating openings of reducing fittings
- (c) marking
- (d) material
- (e) dimensions and tolerances
- (f) threading, and
- (g) coatings
The ASME B16.5 - 1996 Pipe Flanges and Flange Fittings standard covers pressure-temperature ratings, materials, dimensions, tolerances, marking, testing, and methods of designating openings for pipe flanges and flanged fittings. The standard includes flanges with rating class designations 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500 in sizes NPS 1/2 through NPS 24, with requirements given in both metric and U.S units. The Standard is limited to flanges and flanged fittings made from cast or forged materials, and blind flanges and certain reducing flanges made from cast, forged, or plate materials. Also included in this Standard are requirements and recommendations regarding flange bolting, flange gaskets, and flange joints.
ASME/ANSI B16.9 - 2001 - Factory-Made Wrought Steel Buttwelding Fittings
This Standard covers overall dimensions, tolerances, ratings, testing, and markings for wrought factory-made buttwelding fittings in sizes NPS 1/2 through 48 (DN 15 through 1200).
ASME/ANSI B16.10 - 2000 - Face-to-Face and End-to-End Dimensions of Valves
This Standard covers face-to-face and end-to-end dimensions of straightway valves, and center-to face and center-to-end dimensions of angle valves. Its purpose is to assure installation interchangeability for valves of a given material, type size, rating class, and end connection
ASME/ANSI B16.11 - 2001 - Forged Steel Fittings, Socket-Welding and Threaded
This Standard covers ratings, dimensions, tolerances, marking and material requirements for forged fittings, both socket-welding and threaded.
ASME/ANSI B16.12 - 1998 - Cast Iron Threaded Drainage Fittings
This Standard for cast iron threaded drainage fittings covers:
- (a) size and method of designating openings in reducing fittings
- (b) marking
- (c) materials
- (d) dimensions and tolerances
- (e) threading
- (f) ribs
- (g) coatings
- (h) face bevel discharge nozzles, input shafts, base plates, and foundation bolt holes (see Tables 1 and 2).
This Standard for Ferrous Pipe Plugs, Bushings, and Locknuts with Pipe Threads covers:
- (a) pressure-temperature ratings:
- (b) size;
- (c) marking;
- (d) materials;
- (e) dimensions and tolerances;
- (f) threading; and
- (g) pattern taper.
This Standard pertains primarily to cast Class 125and Class 250 bronze threaded pipe fittings. Certain requirements also pertain to wrought or cast plugs, bushings, couplings, and caps. This Standard covers:
- (a) pressure-temperature ratings;
- (b) size and method of designating openings of reducing pipe fittings;
- (c) marking;
- (d) minimum requirements for casting quality and materials;
- (e) dimensions and tolerances in U.S. customary and metric (SI) units;
- (f) threading.
This Standard for cast copper alloy solder joint pressure fittings designed for use with copper water tube, establishes requirements for:
- (a) Pressure-temperature ratings;
- (b) Abbreviations for end connections;
- (c) Sizes and method of designating openings of fittings;
- (d) Marking;
- (e) Material;
- (f) Dimensions and tolerances; and
- (g) Tests.
This standard covers materials, dimensions, tolerances, and markings for metal ring-joint gaskets, spiral-wound metal gaskets, and metal jacketed gaskets and filler material. These gaskets are dimensionally suitable for used with flanges described in the reference flange standards ASME/ANSI B16.5, ASME B16.47, and API-6A. This standard covers spiral-wound metal gaskets and metal jacketed gaskets for use with raised face and flat face flanges. Replaces API-601 or API-601.
ASME/ANSI B16.21 - 1992 - Nonmetallic Flat Gaskets for Pipe Flanges
This Standard for nonmetallic flat gaskets for bolted flanged joints in piping includes:
- (a) types and sizes;
- (b) materials;
- (c) dimensions and allowable tolerances.
The Standard establishes specifications for wrought copper and wrought copper alloy, solder-joint, seamless fittings, designed for use with seamless copper tube conforming to ASTM B 88 (water and general plumbing systems), B 280 (air conditioning and refrigeration service), and B 819 (medical gas systems), as well as fittings intended to be assembled with soldering materials conforming to ASTM B 32, brazing materials conforming to AWS A5.8, or with tapered pipe thread conforming to ASME B1.20.1. This Standard is allied with ASME B16.18, which covers cast copper alloy pressure fittings. It provides requirements for fitting ends suitable for soldering. This Standard covers:
- (a) pressure temperature ratings;
- (b) abbreviations for end connections;
- (c) size and method of designating openings of fittings;
- (d) marking;
- (e) material;
- (f) dimension and tolerances; and
- (g) tests.
The Standard establishes specifications for cast copper alloy solder joint drainage fittings, designed for use in drain, waste, and vent (DWV) systems. These fittings are designed for use with seamless copper tube conforming to ASTM B 306, Copper Drainage Tube (DWV), as well as fittings intended to be assembled with soldering materials conforming to ASTM B 32, or tapered pipe thread conforming to ASME B1.20.1. This standard is allied with ASME B16.29, Wrought Copper and Wrought Copper Alloy Solder Joint Drainage Fittings - DWV. It provides requirements for fitting ends suitable for soldering. This standard covers:
- (a) description;
- (b) pitch (slope);
- (c) abbreviations for end connections;
- (d) sizes and methods for designing openings for reducing fittings;
- (e) marking;
- (f) material; and
- (g) dimensions and tolerances.
This Standard for Classes 25, 125, 250, and 800 Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings covers:
- (a) pressure temperature ratings,
- (b) sizes and methods of designating openings for reduced fittings,
- (c) marking,
- (d) minimum requirements for materials,
- (e) dimensions and tolerances,
- (f) bolt, nut, and gasket dimensions, and
- (g) tests.
The Standard covers the preparation of butt welding ends of piping components to be joined into a piping system by welding. It includes requirements for welding bevels, for external and internal shaping of heavy-wall components, and for preparation of internal ends (including dimensions and tolerances). Coverage includes preparation for joints with the following.
- (a) no backing rings;
- (b) split or non continuous backing rings;
- (c) solid or continuous backing rings;
- (d) consumable insert rings;
- (e) gas tungsten are welding (GTAW) of the root pass. Details of preparation for any backing ring must be specified in ordering the component.
This standard for Cast Copper Alloy Fitting for Flared Copper Tubes covers:
- (a) pressure rating;
- (b) material;
- (c) size;
- (d) threading;
- (e) marking.
This Standard covers ratings, overall dimensions, testing, tolerances, and markings for wrought carbon and alloy steel buttwelding short radius elbows and returns. The term wrought denotes fittings made of pipe, tubing, plate, or forgings.
ASME/ANSI B16.29 - 1994 - Wrought Copper and Wrought Copper Alloy Solder Joint Drainage Fittings (DWV)
The standard for wrought copper and wrought copper alloy solder joint drainage fittings, designed for use with copper drainage tube, covers:
- (a) Description,
- (b) Pitch (slope),
- (c) Abbreviations for End Connections,
- (d) Sizes and Method of Designating Openings for Reducing Fittings,
- (e) Marking,
- (f) Material,
- (g) Dimensions and Tolerances.
General This Standard covers requirements for manually operated metallic valves sizes NPS 1.2 through NPS 2, for outdoor installation as gas shut-off valves at the end of the gas service line and before the gas regulator and meter where the designated gauge pressure of the gas piping system does not exceed 125 psi (8.6 bar). The Standard applies to valves operated in a temperature environment between .20 degrees F and 150 degrees F (.29 degrees C and 66 degrees C). Design This Standard sets forth the minimum capabilities, characteristics, and properties, which a valve at the time of manufacture must possess, in order to be considered suitable for use in gas piping systems.
ASME/ANSI B16.34 - 1996 - Valves - Flanged, Threaded, and Welding End
This standard applies to new valve construction and covers pressure-temperature ratings, dimensions, tolerances, materials, nondestructive examination requirements, testing, and marking for cast, forged, and fabricated flanged, threaded, and welding end, and wafer or flangeless valves of steel, nickel-base alloys, and other alloys shown in Table 1. Wafer or flangeless valves, bolted or through-bolt types, that are installed between flanges or against a flange shall be treated as flanged end valves.
ASME/ANSI B16.36 - 1996 - Orifice Flanges
This Standard covers flanges (similar to those covered in ASME B16.5) that have orifice pressure differential connections. Coverage is limited to the following:
- (a) welding neck flanges Classes 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500
- (b) slip-on and threaded Class 300
- Orifice, Nozzle and Venturi Flow Rate Meters
The standard covers only manually operated metallic valves in nominal pipe sizes 2 1/2 through 12 having the inlet and outlet on a common center line, which are suitable for controlling the flow of gas from open to fully closed, for use in distribution and service lines where the maximum gage pressure at which such distribution piping systems may be operated in accordance with the code of federal regulations (cfr), title 49, part 192, transportation of natural and other gas by pipeline; minimum safety standard, does not exceed 125 psi (8.6 bar). Valve seats, seals and stem packing may be nonmetallic.
ASME/ANSI B16.39 - 1986 (R1998) - Malleable Iron Threaded Pipe Unions
This Standard for threaded malleable iron unions, classes 150, 250, and 300, provides requirements for the following:
- (a) design
- (b) pressure-temperature ratings
- (c) size
- (d) marking
- (e) materials
- (f) joints and seats
- (g) threads
- (h) hydrostatic strength
- (i) tensile strength
- (j) air pressure test
- (k) sampling
- (l) coatings
- (m) dimensions
The Standard covers manually operated thermoplastic valves in nominal sizes 1.2 through 6 (as shown in Table 5). These valves are suitable for use below ground in thermoplastic distribution mains and service lines. The maximum pressure at which such distribution piping systems may be operated is in accordance with the Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) Title 49, Part 192, Transportation of Natural and Other Gas by Pipeline; Minimum Safety Standards, for temperature ranges of .20 deg. F to 100 deg. F (.29 deg. C to 38 deg. C). This Standard sets qualification requirements for each nominal valve size for each valve design as a necessary condition for demonstrating conformance to this Standard. This Standard sets requirements for newly manufactured valves for use in below ground piping systems for natural gas [includes synthetic natural gas (SNG)], and liquefied petroleum (LP) gases (distributed as a vapor, with or without the admixture of air) or mixtures thereof.
ASME/ANSI B16.42 - 1998 - Ductile Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings, Classes 150 and 300
The Standard covers minimum requirements for Class 150 and 300 cast ductile iron pipe flanges and flanged fittings. The requirements covered are as follows:
- (a) pressure-temperature ratings
- (b) sizes and method of designating openings
- (c) marking
- (d) materials
- (e) dimensions and tolerances
- (f) blots, nuts, and gaskets
- (g) tests
This Standard applies to new valve construction and covers quarter turn manually operated metallic valves in sizes NPS 1/2-2 which are intended for indoor installation as gas shutoff valves when installed in indoor gas piping between a gas meter outlet & the inlet connection to a gas appliance.
ASME/ANSI B16.45 - 1998 - Cast Iron Fittings for Solvent Drainage Systems
The Standard for cast iron drainage fittings used on self-aerating, one-pipe Solvent drainage systems, covers the following:
- (a) description
- (b) sizes and methods for designating openings for reducing fittings
- (c) marking
- (d) material
- (e) pitch
- (f) design
- (g) dimensions and tolerances
- (h) tests
This Standard covers pressure-temperature ratings, materials, dimensions, tolerances, marking, and testing for pipe flanges in sizes NPS 26 through NPS 60 and in ratings Classes 75, 150,0300, 400, 600, and 900. Flanges may be cast, forged, or plate (for blind flanges only) materials. Requirements and recommendations regarding bolting and gaskets are also included.
ASME/ANSI B16.48 - 1997 - Steel Line Blanks
The Standard covers pressure-temperature ratings, materials, dimensions, tolerances, marking, and testing for operating line blanks in sizes NPS 1/2 through NPS 24 for installation between ASME B16. 5 flanges in the 150, 300, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500 pressure classes.
ASME/ANSI B16.49 - 2000 - Factory-Made Wrought Steel Buttwelding Induction Bends for Transportation and Distribution Systems
This Standard covers design, material, manufacturing, testing, marking, and inspection requirements for factory-made pipeline bends of carbon steel materials having controlled chemistry and mechanical properties, produced by the induction bending process, with or without tangents. This Standard covers induction bends for transportation and distribution piping applications (e.g., ASME B31.4, B31.8, and B31.11) Process and power piping have differing requirements and materials that may not be appropriate for the restrictions and examinations described herein, and therefore are not included in this Standard.
The work of the Society is performed by its member-elected Board of Governors and through its five Councils, 44 Boards and hundreds of Committees in 13 regions throughout the world.
Technical Divisions and Subdivisions
Advancing the science and practice of mechanical engineering is the responsibility of the Society's 37 Technical Divisions and Subdivisions, which span a vast array of disciplines, technologies and industries:
- Advanced Energy Systems - Promotes the advancement of emerging energy conversion devices and processes, such as hydrogen technologies, fuel cells and heat pumps, and understanding of thermo economics.
- Aerospace - Concerns mechanical engineering of aircraft and manned/unmanned spacecraft design, including adaptive structures and materials, propulsion systems and life support equipment.
- Applied Mechanics - Advances the study of how media, including solids, fluids and systems, respond to external stimuli, as well as the specialized areas of shock and vibration and computer applications.
- Bioengineering - Focused on the application of mechanical engineering principles to the conception, design, development, analysis and operation of biomechanical systems.
- Computers & Information in Engineering - Concerned with the application of emerging computer simulation technology to enhance the entire engineering process.
- Design Engineering - Addresses the design concepts of machines and mechanisms, such as fastening/joining methods and gearing, as well as design aspects affecting reliability and manufacturability.
- Dynamic Systems & Control - Concentrates on control methods and devices, from servomechanisms and regulators to automatic controls, for dynamic systems involving forces, motion and/or the flow of energy or material.
- Electronic & Photonic Packaging - Fosters cooperation on mechanical engineering considerations of microelectronics, photonics, microwave and microelectromechanical systems design and manufacturing.
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- Heat Transfer - Enhances the theory and application of heat transfer in equipment and thermodynamic processes in all fields of mechanical engineering and related technologies.
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- Internal Combustion Engine - Furthers mechanical engineering of all types of reciprocating combustion engines, including diesel and spark ignited engines for mobile, marine, rail and stationary power generation applications.
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- Plant Engineering & Maintenance - Focuses on the design, fabrication, installation, operation and maintenance of manufacturing systems, equipment, processes and facilities to create products of enhanced value.
- Power - Disseminates information on the research, design, operation, economics, and environmental effects of fossil-fired thermal power generation systems, including hydroelectric.
- Pressure Vessels & Piping - Concerns the design, fabrication, inspection, operation and failure prevention of power boilers, heating boilers, pipelines, pumps, valves and other pressure-bearing components and vessels.
- Process Industries - Focuses on the design of systems and machines for heating, cooling or treating industrial fluids and gases, including the efficient management and control of the processes themselves.
- Rail Transportation - Covers the mechanical design, construction, operation and maintenance of locomotives, freight, passenger and commuter cars in railroads and mass transit systems.
- Safety Engineering & Risk Analysis - Promotes practices that lead to reduced risk and loss prevention by creating safer products, processes, and occupational environments.
- Solar Energy - Concerned with all aspects of solar-derived energy for mechanical and electrical power generation, as well as wind energy and ocean thermal energy conversion.
- Solid Waste Processing - Addresses the design, construction and operation of solid waste processing and disposal facilities, including waste-to-energy combustors, materials recovery/recycling, landfills and composting.
- Technology & Society - Covers all issues concerning the inter-relationships between technological innovation and the world community, as well as the social responsibility of the engineer.
- Textile Engineering - Focuses on product and process technology for the improvement of fiber, composite material, textile, and apparel manufacturing operations, machinery and instrumentation.
- Tribology - Involved in all aspects of friction, lubrication and wear in mechanical designs and manufacturing processes, as well as its economic impact on system reliability and maintainability.
The ASME committees within the different divisions and subdivisions develops, updates and publish some of the worlds most used codes and standards. Some of the popular titles are:
- ASME 2004 Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code - The Code, which is issued once every three years, is comprised of 28 separate volumes which establish rules of safety governing the design, fabrication and inspection of boilers and pressure vessels, including nuclear power systems. The Code has been updated to incorporate advancements in boiler and pressure vessel design, materials and applications, and provides the latest information to maintain ASME Code Symbol Stamps.
- ASME A17-CD - CD-ROM for Elevators and Escalators. Includes: A17.1 Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators - A17.2 Guide for Inspection of Elevators, Escalators and Moving Walks - A17.3 Safety Code for Existing Elevators and Escalators
- ASME B31.1 - 2001 Power Piping - The code prescribes minimum requirements for the design, materials, fabrication, erection, test, and inspection of power and auxiliary service piping systems for electric generation stations, industrial institutional plants, central and district heating plants. The code covers boiler external piping for power boilers and high temperature, high pressure water boilers in which steam or vapor is generated at a pressure of more than 15 PSIG; and high temperature water is generated at pressures exceeding 160 PSIG and/or temperatures exceeding 250 degrees F.
- ASME B31.3 - 2002 Process Piping - The Code contains rules for piping typically found in petroleum refineries; chemical, pharmaceutical, textile, paper, semiconductor, and cryogenic plants; and related processing plants and terminals. The Code prescribes requirements for materials and components, design, fabrication, assembly, erection, examination, inspection, and testing of piping. The Code applies to piping for all fluids including: (1) raw, intermediate, and finished chemicals; (2) petroleum products; (3) gas, steam, air and water; (4) fluidized solids; (5) refrigerants; and (6) cryogenic fluids. Also included is piping which interconnects pieces or stages within a packaged equipment assembly.
- ASME V14.5M - 1994 Dimensioning and Tolerance - The standard establishes uniform practices for stating and interpreting dimensioning, tolerances, and related requirements for use on engineering drawings and in related documents. For a mathematical explanation of many of the principles in this standard, see ASME Y14.5.1m. Practices unique to architectural and civil engineering, land, welding symbology are not included.
- ASME B16.5 - 1996 Pipe Flanges and Flange Fittings - The Standard covers pressure-temperature ratings, materials, dimensions, tolerances, marking, testing, and methods of designating openings for pipe flanges and flanged fittings in sizes NPS 1/2 through NPS 24 and in rating Classes 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500. Flanges and flanged fittings may be cast, forged, or (for blind flanges and certain reducing flanges only) plate materials as listed in Table 1A. Requirements and recommendations regarding bolting and gaskets are also included.
- ASME B31.4 - 1998 - Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and other Liquids - The Code prescribes requirements for the design, materials, construction, assembly, inspection, and testing of piping transporting liquids such as crude oil, condensate, natural gasoline, natural gas liquids, liquefied petroleum gas, carbon dioxide, liquid alcohol, liquid anhydrous ammonia and liquid petroleum products between producers' lease facilities, tank farms, natural gas processing plants, refineries, stations, ammonia plants, terminals (marine, rail and truck) and other delivery and receiving points. Piping consists of pipe, flanges, bolting, gaskets, valves, relief devices, fittings and the pressure containing parts of other piping components. It also includes hangers and supports, and other equipment items necessary to prevent overstressing the pressure containing parts. It does not include support structures such as frames of buildings, buildings stanchions or foundations or any equipment such as defined in para. 400.1.2(B). Requirements for offshore pipelines are found in Chapter IX. Also included within the scope of this Code are: (A) Primary and associated auxiliary liquid petroleum and liquid anhydrous ammonia piping at pipeline terminals (marine, rail and truck), tank farms, pump stations, pressure reducing stations and metering stations, including scraper traps, strainers, and prover loop; (B) Storage and working tanks including pipe-type storage fabricated from pipe and fittings, and piping interconnecting these facilities; (C) Liquid petroleum and liquid anhydrous ammonia piping located on property which has been set aside for such piping within petroleum refinery, natural gasoline, gas processing, ammonia, and bulk plants; (D) Those aspects of operation and maintenance of liquid pipeline systems relating to the safety and protection of the general public, operating company personnel, environment, property and the piping systems.
B31 Code for pressure piping, developed by American Society of Mechanical Engineers - ASME, covers Power Piping, Fuel Gas Piping, Process Piping, Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids, Refrigeration Piping and Heat Transfer Components and Building Services Piping. ASME B31 was earlier known as ANSI B31.
B31.1 - 2001 - Power Piping
Piping for industrial plants and marine applications. This code prescribes minimum requirements for the design, materials, fabrication, erection, test, and inspection of power and auxiliary service piping systems for electric generation stations, industrial institutional plants, central and district heating plants.
The code covers boiler external piping for power boilers and high temperature, high pressure water boilers in which steam or vapor is generated at a pressure of more than 15 PSIG; and high temperature water is generated at pressures exceeding 160 PSIG and/or temperatures exceeding 250 degrees F.
B31.2 - 1968 - Fuel Gas Piping
This has been withdrawn as a National Standard and replaced by ANSI/NFPA Z223.1, but B31.2 is still available from ASME and is a good reference for the design of gas piping systems (from the meter to the appliance).
B31.3 - 2002 - Process Piping
Design of chemical and petroleum plants and refineries processing chemicals and hydrocarbons, water and steam. This Code contains rules for piping typically found in petroleum refineries; chemical, pharmaceutical, textile, paper, semiconductor, and cryogenic plants; and related processing plants and terminals.
This Code prescribes requirements for materials and components, design, fabrication, assembly, erection, examination, inspection, and testing of piping. This Code applies to piping for all fluids including: (1) raw, intermediate, and finished chemicals; (2) petroleum products; (3) gas, steam, air and water; (4) fluidized solids; (5) refrigerants; and (6) cryogenic fluids. Also included is piping which interconnects pieces or stages within a packaged equipment assembly.
B31.4 - 2002 - Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids
This Code prescribes requirements for the design, materials, construction, assembly, inspection, and testing of piping transporting liquids such as crude oil, condensate, natural gasoline, natural gas liquids, liquefied petroleum gas, carbon dioxide, liquid alcohol, liquid anhydrous ammonia and liquid petroleum products between producers' lease facilities, tank farms, natural gas processing plants, refineries, stations, ammonia plants, terminals (marine, rail and truck) and other delivery and receiving points.
Piping consists of pipe, flanges, bolting, gaskets, valves, relief devices, fittings and the pressure containing parts of other piping components. It also includes hangers and supports, and other equipment items necessary to prevent overstressing the pressure containing parts. It does not include support structures such as frames of buildings, buildings stanchions or foundations
Requirements for offshore pipelines are found in Chapter IX. Also included within the scope of this Code are:
- (A) Primary and associated auxiliary liquid petroleum and liquid anhydrous ammonia piping at pipeline terminals (marine, rail and truck), tank farms, pump stations, pressure reducing stations and metering stations, including scraper traps, strainers, and prover loop;
- (B) Storage and working tanks including pipe-type storage fabricated from pipe and fittings, and piping interconnecting these facilities;
- (C) Liquid petroleum and liquid anhydrous ammonia piping located on property which has been set aside for such piping within petroleum refinery, natural gasoline, gas processing, ammonia, and bulk plants;
- (D) Those aspects of operation and maintenance of liquid pipeline systems relating to the safety and protection of the general public, operating company personnel, environment, property and the piping systems.
B31.5 - 2001 - Refrigeration Piping and Heat Transfer Components
This Code prescribes requirements for the materials, design, fabrication, assembly, erection, test, and inspection of refrigerant, heat transfer components, and secondary coolant piping for temperatures as low as -320 deg F (-196 deg C), whether erected on the premises or factory assembled, except as specifically excluded in the following paragraphs.
Users are advised that other piping Code Sections may provide requirements for refrigeration piping in their respective jurisdictions.
This Code shall not apply to:
- (a) any self- contained or unit systems subject to the requirements of Underwriters Laboratories or other nationally recognized testing laboratory:
- (b) water piping;
- (c) piping designed for external or internal gage pressure not exceeding 15 psi (105 kPa) regardless of size; or
- (d) pressure vessels, compressors, or pumps,
but does include all connecting refrigerant and secondary coolant piping starting at the first joint adjacent to such apparatus.
B31.8 - 2003 - Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems
This Code covers the design, fabrication, installation, inspection, and testing of pipeline facilities used for the transportation of gas. This Code also covers safety aspects of the operation and maintenance of those facilities.
B31.8S-2001 - 2002 - Managing System Integrity of Gas Pipelines
This Standard applies to on-shore pipeline systems constructed with ferrous materials and that transport gas.
Pipeline system means all parts of physical facilities through which gas is transported, including pipe, valves, appurtenances attached to pipe, compressor units, metering stations, regulator stations, delivery stations, holders and fabricated assemblies.
The principles and processes embodied in integrity management are applicable to all pipeline systems. This Standard is specifically designed to provide the operator (as defined in section 13) with the information necessary to develop and implement an effective integrity management program utilizing proven industry practices and processes.
The processes and approaches within this Standard are applicable to the entire pipeline system.
B31.9 - 1996 - Building Services Piping
This Code Section has rules for the piping in industrial, institutional, commercial and public buildings, and multi-unit residences, which does not require the range of sizes, pressures, and temperatures covered in B31.1.
This Code prescribes requirements for the design, materials, fabrication, installation, inspection, examination and testing of piping systems for building services. It includes piping systems in the building or within the property limits.
B31.11 - 2002 - Slurry Transportation Piping Systems
Design, construction, inspection, security requirements of slurry piping systems.
Covers piping systems that transport aqueous slurries of no hazardous materials, such as coal, mineral ores and other solids between a slurry processing plant and the receiving plant.
B31G - 1991 - Manual for Determining Remaining Strength of Corroded Pipelines
A supplement To B31 Code-Pressure Piping
ASTM International - Standards for Steel Pipes, Tubes and Fittings
5 comments Posted by tambari at 12:58 AMThe ASTM International specifications for steel tubes list standard requirements for boiler and super heater tubes, general service tubes, steel tubes in refinery service, heat exchanger and condenser tubes, mechanical and structural tubing.
Steel Pipes
- A53 - A53/A53M-99b - Specification for Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc-Coated, Welded and Seamless
- A74 - A74-98 - Specification for Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings
- A106 - A106-99e1 - Specification for Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service
- A126 - A126-95e1 - Specification for Grey Iron Castings for Valves, Flanges, and Pipe Fittings
- A134 - A134-96 - Specification for Pipe, Steel, Electric-Fusion (Arc)-Welded (Sizes NPS 16 and Over)
- A135 - A135-97c - Specification for Electric-Resistance-Welded Steel Pipe
- A139 - A139-96e1 - Specification for Electric-Fusion (Arc)-Welded Steel Pipe (NPS 4 and Over)
- A182 - A182/A182M-99 - Specification for Forged or Rolled Alloy-Steel Pipe Flanges, Forged Fittings, and Valves and Parts for High-Temperature Service
- A252 - A252-98 - Specification for Welded and Seamless Steel Pipe Piles
- A312 - A312/A312M-00 - Specification for Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipes
- A333 - A333/A333M-99 - Specification for Seamless and Welded Steel Pipe for Low-Temperature Service
- A335 - A335/A335M-99 - Specification for Seamless Ferritic Alloy-Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service
- A338 - A338-84 (1998) - Specification for Malleable Iron Flanges, Pipe Fittings, and Valve Parts for Railroad, Marine, and Other Heavy Duty Service at Temperatures Up to 650�F (345�C)
- A358 - A358/A358M-98 - Specification for Electric-Fusion-Welded Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Alloy Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service
- A369 - A369/A369M-92 - Specification for Carbon and Ferritic Alloy Steel Forged and Bored Pipe for High-Temperature Service
- A376 - A376/A376M-98 - Specification for Seamless Austenitic Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Central-Station Service
- A377 - A377-99 - Index of Specifications for Ductile-Iron Pressure Pipe
- A409 - A409/A409M-95ae1 - Specification for Welded Large Diameter Austenitic Steel Pipe for Corrosive or High-Temperature Service
- A426 - A426-92 (1997) - Specification for Centrifugally Cast Ferritic Alloy Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service
- A451 - A451-93 (1997) - Specification for Centrifugally Cast Austenitic Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service
- A523 - A523-96 - Specification for Plain End Seamless and Electric-Resistance-Welded Steel Pipe for High-Pressure Pipe-Type Cable Circuits
- A524 - A524-96 - Specification for Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe for Atmospheric and Lower Temperatures
- A530 - A530/A530M-99 - Specification for General Requirements for Specialized Carbon and Alloy Steel Pipe
- A648 - A648-95e1 - Specification for Steel Wire, Hard Drawn for Pre-stressing Concrete Pipe
- A674 - A674-95 - Practice for Polyethylene Encasement for Ductile Iron Pipe for Water or Other Liquids
- A691 - A691-98 - Specification for Carbon and Alloy Steel Pipe, Electric-Fusion-Welded for High-Pressure Service at High Temperatures
- A694 - A694/A694M-00 - Specification for Carbon and Alloy Steel Forgings for Pipe Flanges, Fittings, Valves, and Parts for High-Pressure Transmission Service
- A716 - A716-99 - Specification for Ductile Iron Culvert Pipe
- A733 - A733-99 - Specification for Welded and Seamless Carbon Steel and Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe Nipples
- A742 - A742/A742M-98 - Specification for Steel Sheet, Metallic Coated and Polymer Pre-coated for Corrugated Steel Pipe
- A746 - A746-99 - Specification for Ductile Iron Gravity Sewer Pipe
- A760 - A760/A760M-99 - Specification for Corrugated Steel Pipe, Metallic-Coated for Sewers and Drains
- A761 - A761/A761M-98 - Specification for Corrugated Steel Structural Plate, Zinc-Coated, for Field-Bolted Pipe, Pipe-Arches, and Arches
- A762 - A762/A762M-98 - Specification for Corrugated Steel Pipe, Polymer Pre-coated for Sewers and Drains
- A790 - A790/A790M-99 - Specification for Seamless and Welded Ferritic/Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
- A796 - A796/A796M-99 - Practice for Structural Design of Corrugated Steel Pipe, Pipe-Arches, and Arches for Storm and Sanitary Sewers and Other Buried Applications
- A798 - A798/A798M-97a - Practice for Installing Factory-Made Corrugated Steel Pipe for Sewers and Other Applications
- A807 - A807/A807M-97 - Practice for Installing Corrugated Steel Structural Plate Pipe for Sewers and Other Applications
- A810 - A810-94 - Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Pipe Winding Mesh
- A813 - A813/A813M-95e2 - Specification for Single- or Double-Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
- A814 - A814/A814M-96 (1998) - Specification for Cold-Worked Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
- A849 - A849-99 - Specification for Post-Applied Coatings, Pavings, and Linings for Corrugated Steel Sewer and Drainage Pipe
- A861 - A861-94e1 - Specification for High-Silicon Iron Pipe and Fittings
- A862 - A862/A862M-98 - Practice for Application of Asphalt Coatings to Corrugated Steel Sewer and Drainage Pipe
- A865 - A865-97 - Specification for Threaded Couplings, Steel, Black or Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Welded or Seamless, for Use in Steel Pipe Joints
- A872 - A872-91 (1997) - Specification for Centrifugally Cast Ferritic/Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe for Corrosive Environments
- A885 - A885/A885M-96 - Specification for Steel Sheet, Zinc and Aramid Fiber Composite Coated for Corrugated Steel Sewer, Culvert, and Underdrain Pipe
- A888 - A888-98e1 - Specification for Hubless Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings for Sanitary and Storm Drain, Waste, and Vent Piping Applications
- A926 - A926-97 - Test Method for Comparing the Abrasion Resistance of Coating Materials for Corrugated Metal Pipe
- A928 - A928/A928M-98 - Specification for Ferritic/Austenitic (Duplex) Stainless Steel Pipe Electric Fusion Welded with Addition of Filler Metal
- A929 - A929/A929M-97 - Specification for Steel Sheet, Metallic-Coated by the Hot-Dip Process for Corrugated Steel Pipe
- A930 - A930-99 - Practice for Life-Cycle Cost Analysis of Corrugated Metal Pipe Used for Culverts, Storm Sewers, and Other Buried Conduits
- A943 - A943/A943M-95e1 - Specification for Spray-Formed Seamless Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipes
- A949 - A949/A949M-95e1 - Specification for Spray-Formed Seamless Ferritic/Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
- A954 - A954-96 - Specification for Austenitic Chromium-Nickel-Silicon Alloy Steel Seamless and Welded Pipe
- A972 - A972/A972M-99 - Specification for Fusion Bonded Epoxy-Coated Pipe Piles
- A978 - A978/A978M-97 - Specification for Composite Ribbed Steel Pipe, Precoated and Polyethylene Lined for Gravity Flow Sanitary Sewers, Storm Sewers, and Other Special Applications
- A984 - A984/A984M-00 - Specification for Steel Line Pipe, Black, Plain-End, Electric-Resistance-Welded
- A998 - A998/A998M-98 - Practice for Structural Design of Reinforcements for Fittings in Factory-Made Corrugated Steel Pipe for Sewers and Other Applications
- A999 - A999/A999M-98 - Specification for General Requirements for Alloy and Stainless Steel Pipe
- A1005 - A1005/A1005M-00 - Specification for Steel Line Pipe, Black, Plain End, Longitudinal and Helical Seam, Double Submerged-Arc Welded
- A1006 - A1006/A1006M-00 - Specification for Steel Line Pipe, Black, Plain End, Laser Beam Welded
Steel Tubes
Superheater, Boiler and Miscellaneous Tubes:
- A178 - A178/A178M-95 - Specification for Electric-Resistance-Welded Carbon Steel and Carbon-Manganese Steel Boiler and Superheater Tubes
- A179 - A179/A179M-90a (1996) e1 - Specification for Seamless Cold-Drawn Low-Carbon Steel Heat-Exchanger and Condenser Tubes
- A192 - A192/A192M-91 (1996) e1 - Specification for Seamless Carbon Steel Boiler Tubes for High-Pressure Service
- A209 - A209/A209M-98 - Specification for Seamless Carbon-Molybdenum Alloy-Steel Boiler and Superheater Tubes
- A210 - A210/A210M-96 - Specification for Seamless Medium-Carbon Steel Boiler and Superheater Tubes
- A213 - A213/A213M-99a - Specification for Seamless Ferritic and Austenitic Alloy-Steel Boiler, Superheater, and Heat-Exchanger Tubes
- A249 - A249/A249M-98e1 - Specification for Welded Austenitic Steel Boiler, Superheater, Heat-Exchanger, and Condenser Tubes
- A250 - A250/A250M-95 - Specification for Electric-Resistance-Welded Ferritic Alloy-Steel Boiler and Superheater Tubes
- A254 - A254-97 - Specification for Copper-Brazed Steel Tubing
- A268 - A268/A268M-96 - Specification for Seamless and Welded Ferritic and Martensitic Stainless Steel Tubing for General Service
- A269 - A269-98 - Specification for Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing for General Service
- A270 - A270-98ae1 - Specification for Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Sanitary Tubing
- A334 - A334/A334M-99 - Specification for Seamless and Welded Carbon and Alloy-Steel Tubes for Low-Temperature Service
- A423 - A423/A423M-95 - Specification for Seamless and Electric-Welded Low-Alloy Steel Tubes
- A450 - A450/A450M-96a - Specification for General Requirements for Carbon, Ferritic Alloy, and Austenitic Alloy Steel Tubes
- A608 - A608-91a (1998) - Specification for Centrifugally Cast Iron-Chromium-Nickel High-Alloy Tubing for Pressure Application at High Temperatures
- A618 - A618-99 - Specification for Hot-Formed Welded and Seamless High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Tubing
- A632 - A632-98 - Specification for Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing (Small-Diameter) for General Service
- A688 - A688/A688M-98 - Specification for Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Feedwater Heater Tubes
- A771 - A771/A771M-95 - Specification for Seamless Austenitic and Martensitic Stainless Steel Tubing for Liquid Metal-Cooled Reactor Core Components
- A778 - A778-98 - Specification for Welded, Unanneled Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubular Products
- A789 - A789/A789M-00 - Specification for Seamless and Welded Ferritic/Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing for General Service
- A803 - A803/A803M-98 - Specification for Welded Ferritic Stainless Steel Feedwater Heater Tubes
- A822 - A822-90 (1995) e1 - Specification for Seamless Cold-Drawn Carbon Steel Tubing for Hydraulic System Service
- A826 - A826/A826M-95 - Specification for Seamless Austenitic and Martensitic Stainless Steel Duct Tubes for Liquid Metal-Cooled Reactor Core Components
- A847 - A847-99a - Specification for Cold-Formed Welded and Seamless High Strength, Low Alloy Structural Tubing with Improved Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance
- A908 - A908-91 (1998) - Specification for Stainless Steel Needle Tubing
- A953 - A953-96 - Specification for Austenitic Chromium-Nickel-Silicon Alloy Steel Seamless and Welded Tubing -
Heat-Exchanger and Condenser Tubes
- A179 - A179/A179M-90a (1996) e1 - Specification for Seamless Cold-Drawn Low-Carbon Steel Heat-Exchanger and Condenser Tubes
- A213 - A213/A213M-99a - Specification for Seamless Ferritic and Austenitic Alloy-Steel Boiler, Superheater, and Heat-Exchanger Tubes
- A214 - A214/A214M-96 - Specification for Electric-Resistance-Welded Carbon Steel Heat-Exchanger and Condenser Tubes
- A249 - A249/A249M-98e1 - Specification for Welded Austenitic Steel Boiler, Superheater, Heat-Exchanger, and Condenser Tubes
- A498 - A498-98 - Specification for Seamless and Welded Carbon, Ferritic, and Austenitic Alloy Steel Heat-Exchanger Tubes with Integral Fins
- A851 - A851-96 - Specification for High-Frequency Induction Welded, Unannealed, Austenitic Steel Condenser Tubes -
Structural Tubing
- A500 - A500-99 - Specification for Cold-Formed Welded and Seamless Carbon Steel Structural Tubing in Rounds and Shapes
- A501 - A501-99 - Specification for Hot-Formed Welded and Seamless Carbon Steel Structural Tubing
- A847 - A847-99a - Specification for Cold-Formed Welded and Seamless High Strength, Low Alloy Structural Tubing with Improved Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance
- A618 - A618-99 - Specification for Hot-Formed Welded and Seamless High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Tubing -
Mechanical Tubing
- A511 - A511-96 - Specification for Seamless Stainless Steel Mechanical Tubing
- A512 - A512-96 - Specification for Cold-Drawn Buttweld Carbon Steel Mechanical Tubing
- A513 - A513-98 - Specification for Electric-Resistance-Welded Carbon and Alloy Steel Mechanical Tubing
- A519 - A519-96 - Specification for Seamless Carbon and Alloy Steel Mechanical Tubing
- A554 - A554-98e1 - Specification for Welded Stainless Steel Mechanical Tubing -
Welded Fittings
- A234 - A234/A234M-99 - Specification for Piping Fittings of Wrought Carbon Steel and Alloy Steel for Moderate and High Temperature Service
- A403 - A403/A403M-99a - Specification for Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steel Piping Fittings
- A420 - A420/A420M-99 - Specification for Piping Fittings of Wrought Carbon Steel and Alloy Steel for Low-Temperature Service
- A758 - A758/A758M-98 - Specification for Wrought-Carbon Steel Butt-Welding Piping Fittings with Improved Notch Toughness
- A774 - A774/A774M-98 - Specification for As-Welded Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steel Fittings for General Corrosive Service at Low and Moderate Temperatures -
ASTM International, originally known as the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), is one of the largest voluntary standards development organizations in the world - a trusted source for technical standards for materials, products, systems, and services.
The standards includes test procedures for determining or verifying characteristics as chemical composition, measuring performance. The standards cover refined materials as steel and basic products as machinery and fabricated equipment.
The ASTM standards are published in a set of 67 volumes in 16 sections:
- Volume 00.01 - Subject Index - Alphanumeric List
Section 1 - Iron and Steel Products
- Volume 01.01 - Steel - Piping, Tubing, Fittings
- Volume 01.02 - Ferrous Castings; Ferroalloys
- Volume 01.03 - Steel - Plate, Sheet, Strip, Wire; Stainless Steel Bar
- Volume 01.04 - Steel - Structural, Reinforcing, Pressure Vessel, Railway
- Volume 01.05 - Steel - Bars, Forgings, Bearing, Chain, Springs
- Volume 01.06 - Coated Steel Products
- Volume 01.07 - Ships and Marine Technology
- Volume 01.08 - Fasteners
Section 2 - Nonferrous Metal Products
- Volume 02.01 - Copper and Copper Alloys
- Volume 02.02 - Aluminum and Magnesium Alloys
- Volume 02.03 - Electrical Conductors
- Volume 02.04 - Metals: Nickel, Cobalt, Lead, Tin, Zinc, Cadmium, Precious, Reactive, Refractory Metals and Alloys; Materials for Thermostats, Electrical Testing and Resistance, Contacts, Connectors
- Volume 02.05 - Metallic and Inorganic Coatings; Metal Powders; Sintered P/M Structural Parts
Section 3 - Metals Test Methods and Analytical Procedures
- Volume 03.01 - Metals - Mechanical Testing; Elevated and Low-Temperature Tests; Metallography
- Volume 03.02 - Wear and Erosion; Metal Corrosion
- Volume 03.03 - Nondestructive Testing
- Volume 03.04 - Magnetic Properties
- Volume 03.05 - Analytical Chemistry for Metals, Ores, and Related Materials (I): E 32 to E 1724
- Volume 03.06 - Analytical Chemistry for Metals, Ores, and Related Materials (II): E356 to latest; Molecular Spectroscopy; Surface Analysis
Section 4 - Construction
- Volume 04.01 - Cement, Lime; Gypsum
- Volume 04.02 - Concrete and Aggregates
- Volume 04.03 - Road and Paving Materials; Vehicle-Pavement Systems
- Volume 04.04 - Roofing and Waterproofing
- Volume 04.05 - Roofing, Waterproofing, and Bituminous Materials
- Volume 04.06 - Thermal Insulation; Environmental Acoustics
- Volume 04.07 - Building Seals and Sealants; Fire Standards; Dimension Stone
- Volume 04.08 - Soil and Rock (I): D 420 to D 5779
- Volume 04.09 - Soil and Rock (II): D 5780 - latest; Geosynthetics
- Volume 04.10 - Wood
- Volume 04.11 - Building Construction
- Volume 04.12 - Building Constructions (II): E 1672 - latest; Property Management Systems
- Volume 04.13 - Geosynthetics
Section 5 - Petroleum Products, Lubricants, and Fossil Fuels
- Volume 05.01 - Petroleum Products and Lubricants (I): D 56 - D 2596
- Volume 05.02 - Petroleum Products and Lubricants (II): D 2597 - D 4927
- Volume 05.03 - Petroleum Products and Lubricants (III): D 4928 - D 5950
- Volume 05.04 - Petroleum Products and Lubricants (IV): D 5966 - latest
- Volume 05.05 - Test Methods for Rating Motor, Diesel, and Aviation Fuels; Catalysts; Manufactured Carbon and Graphite Products
- Volume 05.06 - Gaseous Fuels; Coal and Coke
Section 6 - Paints, Related Coatings, and Aromatics
- Volume 06.01 - Paint - Tests for Chemical, Physical, and Optical Properties; Appearance
- Volume 06.02 - Paint - Products and Applications; Protective Coatings; Pipeline Coatings
- Volume 06.03 - Paint - Pigments, Drying Oils, Polymers, Resins, Naval Stores, Cellulosic Esters, and Ink Vehicles
- Volume 06.04 - Paint - Solvents; Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Section 7 - Textiles
- Volume 07.01 - Textiles (I): D76 - D3218
- Volume 07.02 - Textiles (II): D3333 - latest
Section 8 - Plastics
- Volume 08.01 - Plastics (I): D 256 - D 2343
- Volume 08.02 - Plastics (II): D 2383 - D 4322
- Volume 08.03 - Plastics (III): D 4329 - latest
- Volume 08.04 - Plastic Pipe and Building Products
Section 9 - Rubber
- Volume 09.01 - Rubber, Natural and Synthetic -- General Test Methods; Carbon Black
- Volume 09.02 - Rubber Products, Industrial - Specifications and Related Test Methods: Gaskets; Tires
Section 10 - Electrical Insulation and Electronics
- Volume 10.01 - Electrical Insulation (I): D 69 - D 2484
- Volume 10.02 - Electrical Insulation (II): D 2518 - latest
- Volume 10.03 - Electrical Insulating Liquids and Gases; Electrical Protective Equipment
- Volume 10.04 - Electronics
Section 11 - Water and Environmental Technology
- Volume 11.01 - Water (I)
- Volume 11.02 - Water (II)
- Volume 11.03 - Atmospheric Analysis; Occupational Health and Safety; Protective Clothing
- Volume 11.04 - Environmental Assessment; Hazardous Substances and Oil Spill Responses; Waste Management
- Volume 11.05 - Biological Effects and Environmental Fate; Biotechnology; Pesticides
Section 12 - Nuclear, Solar, and Geothermal Energy
- Volume 12.01 - Nuclear Energy (I)
- Volume 12.02 - Nuclear Energy (II), Solar, and Geothermal Energy
Section 13 - Medical Devices and Services
- Volume 13.01 - Medical Devices; Emergency Medical Services
- Volume 13.02 - Emergency Medical Services, Search and Rescue
Section 14 - General Methods and Instrumentation
- Volume 14.01 - Healthcare Informatics
- Volume 14.02 - General Test Methods; Forensic Sciences; Terminology; Conformity Assessment; Statistical Methods
- Volume 14.03 - Temperature Measurement
- Volume 14.04 - Laboratory Apparatus; Degradation of Materials; SI; Oxygen Fire Safety
Section 15 - General Products, Chemical Specialties, and End Use Products
- Volume 15.01 - Refractures; Activated Carbon; Advanced Ceramics
- Volume 15.02 - Glass; Ceramic Whitewares
- Volume 15.03 - Space Simulation; Aerospace and Aircraft; High Modulus Fibers
- Volume 15.04 - Soaps and Other Detergents; Polishes; Leather; Resilient Floor Coverings
- Volume 15.05 - Engine Coolants; Halogenated Organic Solvents and Fire Extinguishing Agents; Industrial and Specialty Chemicals
- Volume 15.06 - Adhesives
- Volume 15.07 - Sport Equipment; Safety and Traction for Footwear; Amusement Rides; Consumer Products
- Volume 15.08 - Sensory Evaluation; Vacuum Cleaners; Security Systems; Detention Facilities; Food Service Equipment
- Volume 15.09 - Paper; Packaging; Flexible Barrier Materials; Business Imaging Products
The geothermal heat pump, also known as the ground source heat pump, is a highly efficient renewable energy technology that is gaining wide acceptance for both residential and commercial buildings. Geothermal heat pumps are used for space heating and cooling, as well as water heating. Its great advantage is that it works by concentrating naturally existing heat, rather than by producing heat through combustion of fossil fuels. The technology relies on the fact that the Earth (beneath the surface) remains at a relatively constant temperature throughout the year, warmer than the air above it during the winter and cooler in the summer, very much like a cave. The geothermal heat pump takes advantage of this by transferring heat stored in the Earth or in ground water into a building during the winter, and transferring it out of the building and back into the ground during the summer. The ground, in other words, acts as a heat source in winter and a heat sink in summer. The system includes three principal components:
• Geothermal earth connection subsystem
• Geothermal heat pump subsystem
• Geothermal heat distribution subsystem.
Earth Connection
Using the Earth as a heat source/sink, a series of pipes, commonly called a "loop," is buried in the ground near the building to be conditioned. The loop can be buried either vertically or horizontally. It circulates a fluid (water, or a mixture of water and antifreeze)
that absorbs heat from, or relinquishes heat to, the surrounding soil, depending on whether the ambient air is colder or warmer an the soil.
Heat Pump
For heating, a geothermal heat pump removes the heat from the fluid in the Earth connection, concentrates it, and then transfers it to the building. For cooling, the process is reversed.
Heat Distribution
Conventional ductwork is generally used to distribute heated or cooled air from the geothermal heat pump throughout the building.
Residential Hot Water In addition to space conditioning, geothermal heat pumps can be used to provide domestic hot water when the system is operating. Many residential systems are now equipped with desuperheaters that transfer excess heat from the geothermal heat pump's compressor to the house's hot water tank. A desuperheater provides no hot water during the spring and fall when the geothermal heat pump system is not operating; however, because the geothermal heat pump is so much more efficient than other means of water heating, manufacturers are beginning to offer "full demand" systems that use a separate
heat exchanger to meet all of a household's hot water needs. These units cost-effectively provide hot water as quickly as any competing system.